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Posey Porter WrightHow is it possible that Vladimir, the grand prince of Kiev, single-handedly converted Kievan Slavic peoples to Christianity in the year 988? For one man--especially a licentious man and an active persecutor of all religious sects--to accomplish such a feat almost transcends belief. In fact, he had won the title grand prince because of his lusty defense of paganism.
Posey Porter Wright is currently doing further research on medieval Russia, while also writing a travel book for senior women. She lives in Santa Barbara, California. Nevertheless, he was so dominant a figure in Russian history that eight hundred years later Catherine the Great, the legendary empress of Russia, recognizing the many contributions Vladimir had made to Russian history, created the Order of Vladimir in his honor, bestowing this award on those who performed some distinguished public and private service. In the tenth century, Prince Vladimir ruled over the city of Kiev and southern Slavic territories, also known as Rus, which later became Ukraine and Russia. Though Kiev was outside the perimeter of more easily accessible European cities, it was larger than Paris, even twice the size of London. Part of this was due to its strategic location astride major trade routes fanning out east and west, north and south. Its being situated on the banks of the Dnieper River brought Constantinople, the celebrated center of Eastern Christianity, within easy trading distance. Kiev was also considered a marvel to foreigners because of its size, its wealth, and its beauty, and it would be known as "the radiant, the many colored." Even then it was a city alive with experimentation, about to burst its seams with a flowering of religion and art. Prince Vladimir was what Christians would call a practicing pagan. An animist like many of his citizens, he believed in natural and terrifying spirits. He not only set up fearsome idols on the hills of the city but corrupted and debased the people of Kiev with human sacrifices. His personal life was also morally offensive, for he had seven wives, and he was reputed to have kept hundreds of concubines. Vladimir enjoyed impunity. The grand prince became aware of the winds of change within his realm, however, and finally recognized the rising tide of traditional religions. His grandmother Olga had converted to Christianity in 957 and had gone to Constantinople to be baptized. This conversion caused hardly a ripple within the family. Vladimir began to notice that the merchants and traders were increasingly interested in matters of faith and practice. They were seeking "a sense of unity and purpose, a sense of belonging to the civilized world." The prince decided that he, too, would like to explore the popular religions of the day. He therefore invited representatives of the Jewish faith, Islam, the Roman Catholic Church, and the Holy Apostolic Church of Constantinople, the Greek Orthodox Church, to come before him to present their particular tenets. The Jews who came were Khazars from southeastern Russia. They were a mild people who had embraced Judaism in the eighth century and had managed to preserve their cultural, political, and religious independence from both Europe and Asia. According to The Primary Chronicle, compiled probably by monks in the twelfth century, Vladimir asked why the Jews had been expelled from Jerusalem. They replied, "God was angry at our forefathers and scattered us among the gentiles for our sins." According to an account written by Alexander Dumas, the author of The Three Musketeers, in his 1858 book Adventures in Tzarist Russia, Vladimir replied, "There seems to me no sense in taking sides with these fugitives from the wrath of heaven. Why should I share their punishment for a crime I did not commit?" The prince was further repelled by the Jewish rite of circumcision. The Jews were sent away. From the Volga region to the east came the Bulgars, who represented Islam. They, too, practiced circumcision, but clearly their firm commitment to the prohibition of wine and spirits was the major stumbling block for Vladimir. He responded by saying, "Drink is the joy of the people of Rus. We cannot exist without that pleasure." FOOTNOTE: 1 Even their promise that in the afterlife Muhammad would give to each man seventy fair women was not enough to persuade the grand prince. The Bulgars returned home empty-handed. The envoys of the Roman Catholic Church came from Germany. These churchmen thought that Rome was the only spiritual center and that the pope was above all secular rulers. The emissaries stressed that all roads led to Rome, an anathema to the growing nationalism of the Slavs. Vladimir had no intention of giving up any of his sovereignty. Moreover he stated, "I am quite willing to acknowledge a God in heaven, but one on earth? No!" FOOTNOTE: 2 These representatives also proclaimed the teaching that "fasting was necessary according to one's strength. What one eats or drinks is all to the glory of God as our teacher Paul has said." FOOTNOTE: 3 The prince replied, "Depart hence; our fathers accepted no such principle." To the Slavs, Judaism, Islam, and the Roman Catholic Church appeared to be rigid and uncompromising. Missing was the sensuous appeal that played such a role in the Slavic psyche. As the grand prince contemplated the mystical appeal of the Greek Orthodox Church, he was sufficiently interested to decide to send his delegates to Constantinople to experience firsthand "by whom and how God was worshipped." Once there, these envoys were dazzled. They attended the services at Santa Sofia, the legendary church of the Byzantine faith, and later reported: "They led us to the buildings where they worshipped their God, and we knew not whether we were in heaven or on earth. For on earth there is no such splendor or such beauty, and we are at a loss to describe it. We know only that God dwells there among men, and their service is fairer than the ceremonies of other nations. For we cannot forget that beauty. Every man after tasting something sweet, is afterward unwilling to accept that which is bitter. FOOTNOTE: 4" They were struck not only by the grandeur of the church building but by the overpowering appeal to the senses. They had never seen such magnificence before. The priests wore long jeweled vestments of many-colored silks, and these were lavishly embroidered with silver and gold thread. Further, the very air they breathed was clouded with incense, a pungent reminder of the cloudy pillar through which God came to Moses. The myriad candles provided flickering illumination for the majesty of the icons, and the gold and silver vessels on the altar all contributed to a deep emotional response. Upon hearing their account, Vladimir was profoundly moved. This erstwhile pagan decided to embrace the Holy Apostolic Church and began to set in motion the necessary steps for his conversion. He notified Emperor Basil II in Constantinople of his desire. Not only was Basil delighted to welcome a new convert to his church, but he particularly needed an ally who had a strong military force at his command. At that time Basil was facing insurrection in Asia Minor, and here was a new source of help. To further cement this budding new relationship, he offered his sister, the Princess Anna, in marriage to Vladimir. Anna had severe reservations about marrying this barbarian. Constantinople was the foremost center of culture and wealth in the known world. Why should she give up this stimulating life to go to Kiev? As a member of this royal Byzantine family, Anna was known as a porphyrogenite, one who was "born to the purple." This color was reserved for members of particular royal families as well as for the church's ecclesiastical robes and insignia. Here was further reason for her reluctance. The pressure from her brother Basil, who needed this powerful association, and the realization that the throne of Kiev was the highest and most desirable position in all of Russia finally led her to give in. The tentative arrangements were made for Vladimir's baptismal ceremony to take place in the empire, and the wedding would immediately follow. The six-thousand-man army that Vladimir provided was an indispensable addition to Basil's own forces. The ensuing joint campaign quickly put down the revolt, and the grand prince then expected his reward. Having fulfilled his part in the undertaking, he looked forward with anticipation to his baptism and marriage. To his fury, however, the emperor backed away from his commitment. The prince of Kiev was a canny man, however, and he devised a scheme to reinforce his role in this relationship. He forthwith reassembled his army and marched to the Crimea. There he captured Cherson, a city dear to Basil's heart. Basil was stunned. Regardless of his sister's reluctance to marry this upstart, Basil was forced to capitulate and Anna was dispatched to Cherson, accompanied by the church hierarchy. There Vladimir was duly baptized by the patriarch, and the wedding followed. As a token of undying friendship, Vladimir artfully returned the city of Cherson to Basil, thereby cementing the equality of their relationship. Although Constantinople, like Rome, wished to retain control over the new convert and his lands, Vladimir was equally determined to resist. The emperor had assumed that with the prince's conversion tKiev would lose its independence, and that political and spiritual power would somehow remain in Constantinople. He had not reckoned with the grand prince of Kiev. It was a triumphant Vladimir who returned to Kiev. From the Crimea he brought back not only a royal wife but ranks of priests as well. The clergy brought with them priceless relics of saints, holy icons of brilliant colors, and other sacred vessels. They also brought access to a new melodic harmony in Byzantine music that would further delight the Slavs. A revolutionary change was at hand. Vladimir was now more than ever determined to establish his own national religion, the Russian Orthodox Church. He issued a decree that all his people were to be baptized into this new faith. They had no choice. On the appointed day in 988 they were marched to the river's edge en masse and were baptized by the priests. Further baptismal orders were issued to Novgorod, a city in the north, as well as other territories in his realm. The latter put up no resistance, but in Novgorod it was a different matter. This crustily independent city had been much more of a pagan city, and it strongly opposed the fiat. Vladimir, aware of their dissent, moved with fire and the sword, and the resistance collapsed. Thus in 988 all at once Slavdom became a Christian nation. The prince hastened to have all pagan idols destroyed. They were torn from their bases, tied to horses' tails, dragged through town, and then ceremoniously dumped in the river. Some of the buildings that had housed the idols were immediately transformed into churches, and a new building program began. On the site of the major pagan temple the prince erected the Church of the Tithes, the first official church building and the first stone cathedral in Slavdom. In his zeal he pledged one-tenth of his revenues to its support, hence its name. As many new converts do, Vladimir became a zealot for his new faith. "The essential Russian ideal related to an imitation of the deeds of Christ. There was a voluntary acceptance of suffering and death, and a peaceful non-resistance to injustice." FOOTNOTE: 5 Vladimir genuinely tried to live a life reflecting Christ, and he had to be admonished at times for his new permissive attitudes. "He invited each beggar and poor man to come to his palace and receive whatever he needed, both food and drink, and money from the treasury." FOOTNOTE: 6 This new approach aroused dismay in the hearts of his counselors. Eventually he was forced to heed them, and order returned to the city. Nevertheless, the core of Russian Christianity underscored the vision of Christ in his poverty, meekness, and love. This was the path to salvation. This new church would conduct all its rites and rituals in Church Slavonic, a local language that brought religion closer to the common man and gave him a sense of participation. Church Slavonic was created by the Greek Christian missionaries Cyril and Methodius, who had realized the need for an alphabet and language for the conversion of the Slavs. These brothers then translated the liturgy and scriptures from Greek into Church Slavonic. This language--along with Greek and Latin--became the language of writing and worship in medieval Christendom. For over a thousand years it has been used in the Russian church. Modified, it became the basis for the Cyrillic alphabet still in use in Russia. The new churches would naturally require a clergy who could read, write, and speak this language. An educated clergy was important, but it was equally important to have a corps of literate clerks capable of keeping court reports, historical records, and other civic data. With the upper classes of Kiev anxious for their children to be educated, schools became a priority--this in a country that had been largely illiterate. A new spirit of freedom permeated Kiev. This was not only individual freedom but political and economic freedom as well. Kiev had never had a feudal system like that in western Europe, for there had always been a free peasantry. The serfdom common in Europe did not afflict Russia until after the defeat of the Mongols five hundred years later. Vladimir now introduced Byzantine jurisprudence, which was based on canon law, and it was unusually lenient by the standards of the times. A new spirit was felt in the land. Kiev was ushering in a whole new developing culture. Art, literature, and religion flourished. Ilarion, the first native church metropolitan, said, "This was a city glistening in the light of holy icons, fragrant in incense and ringing with praise and holy heavenly songs." FOOTNOTE: 7 "Mother Russia," the enduring representation of Russia, was closely identified with Kiev. It grew in part from the compassionate figure of the Virgin Mary, considered the protectress of the city. It is no wonder that Kiev was considered the birthplace of the Slavic nations, including Russia. Even today there is an almost mystical feeling about the city. Its history abounded with heroic deeds, and Vladimir, "The Bright Sun," surrounded himself with fabled knights whose "exploits of valor and strength passed into legend and epic songs." FOOTNOTE: 8 They were a counterpart to King Arthur's Knights of the Round Table. Alexander Solzhenitsyn in his book Rebuilding Russia says, "We all [meaning all the Slavic nations] sprang from precious Kiev." This progress was not to last, however. By the middle of the thirteenth century a grandson of Genghis Khan, Batu Khan, had overrun Russia and decisively defeated the Russian princes. Kiev was almost totally destroyed. All the churches were pillaged and burned, and only two hundred houses were left standing. Many Russians were taken into slavery, and some were subsequently found serving masters in Italy and in China. For two centuries the Mongols maintained their power, and the focus of what Russian power remained moved northeast to Moscow. Still, in the minds of Russians, Kiev continued as the symbol of constancy and consistency, "the joy of the world" to chroniclers. Vladimir, the grand prince of Kiev, was the catalyst for it all. Considering his early history of insensitivity and cruelty, his growth was impressive. It was Christianity that sparked this spiritual and cultural renewal, but it took Vladimir to set it in motion. He had fostered the flowering of not only education but the arts, literature, and architecture. The religion that he introduced would remain a dominant theme in Russian life until the Bolshevik Revolution, and even now it is experiencing a renaissance in Russian life. His legacy would include a uniform religion, a common language, jurisprudence, and a common cultural tradition. For a man who had espoused paganism, he had grown in character, in his spiritual life, in nobility, and in grace. Because of his contribution he would be recognized in the thirteenth century as "Baptizer of the Russians" and "equal to the apostles." When Mikhail Gorbachev was in the United States in the winter of 1987, he paid tribute to the prince of Kiev. At a reception held in Gorbachev's honor at the Russian Embassy he was queried as to the state of religion in his country. He acknowledged with some pride that the following year, 1988, would mark one thousand years of Christianity in Russia. The grand prince of Kiev still triumphs.n FOOTNOTE: FOOTNOTE: 1.Nicholas Riasanovsky, A History of Russia (New York: Oxford University Press, 1969), 38. FOOTNOTE: 2.Alexandre Dumas, Adventures in Tsarist Russia, 30. FOOTNOTE: 3.Jesse Clarkson, A History of Russia (New York: Random House, 1963), 33. FOOTNOTE: 4.James Billington, The Icon and the Axe (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1967), 6--7. FOOTNOTE: 5.Suzanne Massie, Land of the Firebird (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1995), 29. FOOTNOTE: 6.Basil Dmytryshyn, Medieval Russia: A Source Book 900--1700 (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1967), 37. FOOTNOTE: 7.Billington, Icon, 6. FOOTNOTE: 8.Marc Slonim, The Epic of Russian Literature (New York: Oxford University Press, 1950), 9. |
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