The pairing of innovative technologies with scientific discoveries about the brain opens new ways of handling information, treating diseases, and possibly creating robots with human characteristics.

"For I dipp'd into the future,"
"far as human eye could see,"
"Saw the Vision of the world,"
"and all the wonder that would be."
----Alfred, Lord Tennyson
        An understanding of the brain helps us understand our nature. Over the course of evolution, the brain has acquired greater functions and higher consciousness. The reptilian brain, for instance, exerts control over vegetative functions, such as eating, sleeping, and reproduction. Development of the mammalian brain added the ability to express emotions. The human brain has the additional powers of cognition--such as reasoning, judgment, problem solving, and creativity. The latter functions, which are controlled by an area of the brain called the prefrontal cortex (located behind the forehead), distinguish us from other forms of life and represent the flower of our humanity. They have allowed us to re-create ourselves and decide our destiny.
        Besides these long-term changes, our brains undergo short-term modifications during our lifetime. Not only does the brain control behavior, but one's behavior leads to changes in the brain, in terms of both structure and function. Subjective experiences play a major role in brain functions and the manifestation of one's mind, consciousness, and personal values. Thus the brain adapts to each individual's changing world.
        Modern society and technology have given us the time, protection, and freedom to focus on the higher powers of the brain. As individual freedoms and the free enterprise system are extended around the world, we will see a continuing rise of innovative ventures and scientific exploration. In addition, our success at eliminating brain diseases and expanding brain functions will depend on the uniquely human characteristics of the brain. Given the finances and technology, we will need vision and creativity.
        But modern technology also raises a number of questions about our future. For instance, how will the continuing information explosion challenge the powers of our brains? What does the next century have in store for us regarding memory drugs, brain surgery, brain regeneration, and other treatments for brain disorders? How will the relationships between mind and body or brain and machine evolve? More important, are we prepared to handle such challenges, socially, psychologically, and ethically?

The information explosion
        Information technologies have been increasingly successful in helping us acquire and communicate large new areas of knowledge. But the same success challenges the brain's capacity [see "Sherlock Holmes' Lesson," The World & I, June 2000, p. 317]. How will the brain continue to cope with this information explosion? It will probably employ the same techniques it always has: filtering, organizing, and selective forgetting.
         Already, the brain filters out more than 99 percent of all sensory input before it reaches consciousness. In the future, it will be even more important to filter out the repetitive, boring, and unnecessary, and retain the novel, relevant, and necessary information. Actually, the brain is not good at remembering isolated facts but is great at organizing and associating thoughts and ideas. This ability will help it handle new information without suffering overload.
        Just as important as the biology inside the brain is the technology outside. First with the introduction of books, and now computers, we have become increasingly reliant on artificial means of storing information. Thus the relative need for long-term (storage) memory in the brain and the time span for storage have decreased. As this trend continues, we will make greater use of our working memory and less use of our storage memory [see "Now Where Did I Put Those Keys?" The World & I, November 1998, p. 160].
        Help for our memories may also come in the form of a pill. Research related to Alzheimer's disease has already produced a drug that can improve normal memory in small, healthy animals.
        Furthermore, the rate at which we access and share information will most likely continue to accelerate. As a result, our brains will be challenged to think faster and make decisions more quickly. Anything less will be inefficient. Bureaucracy and red tape will be our enemies. We may be compelled to place greater emphasis on intuition and "gut feelings."

Treating hereditary brain disorders
        In living organisms, another type of memory occurs in the form of genetic material known as DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). It is the blueprint for the body and the chemical memory for traits that are passed down from generation to generation. The DNA representing the human genome (complete set of genetic information) consists of over 3 billion subunits (base pairs) and contains the coding for anywhere between 40,000 and 100,000 genes.
        Scientists are already tackling the ambitious goal of determining the sequence of base pairs and mapping the genes of the entire human genome. Two groups--a publicly funded, international consortium (whose work is known as the Human Genome Project) and the private company Celera Genomics Corporation (based in Rockville, Maryland)--have just recently submitted "working drafts," with the promise of more detailed, high-quality results in the near future.
        The human genetic map will help locate biomarkers for the diagnosis and treatment of hereditary disorders, including those affecting the brain. One type of treatment, known as gene therapy, is directed toward replacing defective genes with undamaged ones [see "Doctoring Genes to Beat Disease," The World & I, December 1997, p. 178]. But the many gene therapy trials conducted over the past 10 years have met with a low success rate, indicating the need for further refinements to the technique. In the meantime, a promising new strategy called chimeraplasty, in which the cell is stimulated to repair its own defective genes, has emerged [see "The Promise of Genetic Cures," The World & I, May 2000, p. 147]. Either approach may also be used to fight noninherited disorders by increasing the body's production of substances (such as interleukin or interferon) that protect the body.
        The genetic information will probably lead to tests performed in utero or early in life to detect markers that suggest predispositions to such conditions as obesity and alcoholism, or such diseases as schizophrenia and Alzheimer's. People would then have the opportunity to get genetic counseling and design a lifestyle that integrates medical surveillance to stay healthy. At the same time, however, we need to improve our system of laws to prevent discrimination against people-- particularly in employment and insurance coverage--based on this information. In February this year, President Clinton prohibited federal employers from requiring or requesting genetic tests as a condition of being hired or receiving benefits.
        Moreover, knowledge of a person's genotype (gene structure and organization) will not necessarily enable us to predict his phenotype (body structure), which is the manifestation of not only the genetic information but environmental influences and life experiences as well. The phenotype for a brain disease, for example, could range anywhere from no symptoms to total disability. Even identical twins are not 100 percent concordant for most brain disorders. The health and character of the human brain (and the rest of the body) are neither predetermined nor inevitable. Environment and behavior can alter our brains; free will can influence our behavior.
        It is also possible that a treatment that alters one gene may affect many traits, even those that we do not wish to change. The same gene linked to a brain disorder might also influence intelligence or creativity. The risk involved in altering a gene is especially great for disorders associated with multiple genes.
        Vaccines, drugs, surgery, and brain regeneration
        We have grown up in a world of miracle drugs, but most alleviate just the symptoms. The next century will focus on prevention and cures. Scientists are already working on oral vaccines that would attack the pathological plaques and tangles of Alzheimer's disease, decrease brain damage after a stroke or seizure, and lower the number of seizures in epileptics. We will be able to administer specific substances (called trophic factors) that will stimulate brain cells to multiply and replace cells degenerating because of brain diseases such as Parkinson's and Huntington's.
         The trial-and-error method of finding effective drugs is now being replaced by the use of computers to design molecules that will precisely fit into specific receptors for the purpose of treating diseases. In the future, we will also be able to manufacture and use larger quantities of disease-fighting chemicals--such as interleukins, interferon, and brain trophic factors--that occur naturally in the body.
        One strategy for making large quantities of specific antibodies is called the monoclonal antibody technique. Antibodies of a particular type are produced in large quantities by fusing the specific antibody-producing cells with tumor cells that grow and proliferate indefinitely. We could even piggyback drugs onto antibodies that target specific parts of the brain, thereby reducing the drug dosage and minimizing side effects.
        Another approach currently being pursued is genetically engineering plants to produce pharmaceuticals. Until recently, efforts have been directed at protecting crops and improving their taste and nutritional value. About two dozen companies are now working to enhance the availability and lower the cost of drugs by genetically engineering plants to produce them. Some of the drugs may be ingested by simply eating the plant food.
        With the improvement of brain imaging and robotics, brain surgery will improve and become less invasive. The brain is ideally suited for robotic surgery. It is enclosed in a firm skull that's appropriate for mounting instruments and providing fixed reference points by which to navigate the brain. Robotics and microscopic brain imaging will be used for higher precision, fewer mistakes, and minimally invasive surgical techniques.
        While pharmacological and surgical treatments improve, another approach that's gaining in importance is the regeneration of neural tissue. This approach has become possible because of recent research on stem cells and trophic factors, along with the discovery that adult brain cells can divide and multiply. Neural regeneration is the hope for those who suffer from such disorders as paralysis, Lou Gehrig's disease (amyotrophic lateral sclerosis), Down syndrome, retina degeneration, and Parkinson's disease.

The mind-body relationship
        Charles Schultz, the beloved creator of Charlie Brown and author of the comic strip Peanuts for 50 years, died this year on the very day that his farewell strip was published. It was as if he stayed alive just long enough to see it end. Was that just a coincidence?
        Warm, loving relationships, as well as isolation, can influence longevity and the will to live. How often have we heard of a person dying soon after his spouse dies? The body is not a biological machine operating independently of the mind. Even Hippocrates proposed that health was a balance of mind and body in the proper environment.
        The mind has a powerful effect on our physical health by influencing our immune, cardiovascular, and endocrine systems. It can change the levels of such body substances as cortisol, adrenaline, and natural killer cells. Happy people get sick less often. Angry people have more health problems. Stress, anger, depression, and loneliness suppress the immune system, overexert the heart, raise blood pressure, enhance blood clotting, increase bone loss, harden the arteries, and increase cholesterol and abdominal fat. These factors can increase the incidence and severity of cancer, heart disease, stroke, arthritis, and even the common cold.
        Western medicine, however, has underappreciated this mind-body relationship. Now that brain imaging can be used to observe the effect of the mind on the body, we will see the medical establishment embrace this concept as the basis of a legitimate form of therapy. Support groups, meditation, and relaxation therapy will be prescribed to ward off disease and dampen its devastating effects.
        Research has shown that people who derive strength and comfort from religion live healthier and longer lives [see "Is Religion Good for Your Health?" The World & I, February 1996, p. 291]. The benefits of religion go beyond social contact or the encouragement of healthier habits. It can be a mechanism to help cope with life and stressful situations. Faith in a Higher Being has been shown to be an important part of the successful Twelve Steps program of Alcoholics Anonymous--a program that has been extended to treat other addictions, such as gambling and overeating [see "Spirituality in Healing," The World & I, May 2000, p. 153]. Doctors will use it to increase the compliance of patients with the treatments prescribed for a wide range of acute and chronic medical problems.
        People get better because they believe they will. This is called the placebo effect. A patient's belief that he is receiving effective medicine will alleviate his symptoms. The stronger his belief, the stronger the relief. This effect has been known and used by doctors for many years. It must be taken into account when testing new medicines and therapies.
        The placebo effect is based on the brain's ability to anticipate the future and prepare for it. For example, the brain analyzes trajectories of objects in motion and predicts their future location, or it analyzes environmental temperatures and predicts the body's future temperature. Also, our senses are notorious for seeing what we hope to see and tasting what we expect to taste. The brain produces a placebo effect by stimulating cells and releasing hormones that start the healing process in anticipation of getting better.

The brain-machine connection
        Over the past century, we have aided our vision and hearing with lenses and amplifiers. During the next century, we will probably replace eyes and ears with light and sound detectors and computer chips that send signals to the brain.
         Every year, the International NAISO Congress on Information Science Innovations holds a Robot Soccer Competition. Winners are those who create robots that can "see" with greater acuity, "think" more perceptively, and move faster and with greater agility. Software companies are already making advertising claims that their programs can "think." Will molecular electronics and nanotechnology, combined with genetic engineering, give us the power to create sentient robots?
        If so, a modern-day Pandora's box is being opened. Unlike scientific breakthroughs of the past, the robots and engineered organisms of the future could have the potential for self-replication. While the uncontrolled replication of mischievous programs on the Internet--as seen with the "Melissa" and "I Love You" viruses--can cause a lot of damage, the uncontrolled replication of sentient robots may pose a threat to our humanity. Will this evolution come suddenly, like the news about cloning the first mammal, or gradually, so that we will get used to it? Or will modern-day Luddites have the courage and foresight to say no and steer us in another direction?
        We began the twentieth century looking at the brain's structure through a simple microscope and ended by examining its functions with such techniques as PET (positron emission tomography) and MRI (magnetic resonance imaging). We went through the stages of neuroanatomy, neurophysiology, and neurochemistry. We learned how the brain controls movement and processes sensory information. We scratched the surface in our attempts to clarify intelligence and emotions. Among the challenges of the new century will be to find ways to understand consciousness and how the brain is involved in the powers of reasoning, creativity, and love.
        Speculating about the future, however, is daunting, even for experts. In a 1987 survey, medical scientists predicted that by the year 2000 we would probably have a cure for two-thirds of all cancers, AIDS would be eliminated, and coronary bypass surgery would be replaced by less invasive techniques.
        Distinguishing between fact and fiction is difficult even today. On the first day of my neuroscience course in graduate school, our instructor told us that half of what he would teach us that semester would eventually prove to be wrong--the problem was, he could not tell which half was wrong. Since then, I have repeatedly witnessed the truth of that statement. Revisions of our knowledge will continue in the twenty-first century. We must keep testing our view of the world, and if it fails, replace it with a better one. We must remain flexible in our beliefs, just as our brains remain flexible in their structure and function.

Norbert R. Myslinski is associate professor of neuroscience at the University of Maryland and director of Maryland Brain Awareness Week.